‘Leaving Makes Me Sorrowful’: Songs of Early Scots Gaelic Migrants to Australia’
Dr Ruth Lee Martin
From the 1830s large numbers of Scottish Highlanders started to make the long voyage to Australia — a voyage balanced precariously moment by moment between extreme tedium and sheer terror, in cramped, unsanitary and frightful conditions. For some, the voyage was a chance for betterment fuelled by visions of gold and wealth, or at least a chance to make a living. For many however, choice was not an option. Many were 'cleared' from their homes and lands by landlords who placed profits above all else. The evictions were exemplified by 'brutality and unconcern for the welfare of the native people' (Richards, E. 1985, p. 8). The impact of this time of great tragedy, upheaval and turmoil upon the lives of these immigrants was often expressed in a traditional way — through song.
These immigrants, whose voices speak over the breadth of years so poignantly in ‘the language of Eden’ (a term the Scots Gaels often use to describe their language) were mostly agricultural workers – shepherds, farm labourers, crofters and the like – who came to Australia to work on the land or as servants in the houses of the landowners (Cumming, 1993, p.23).
Scottish migrants were a mixture of Lowlanders (English speaking) and Highland and Islanders (many only speaking Gaelic). The difference between them is described in these crudely geographical terms but in reality the relationship between the two is highly complex. However, Lowlanders and Highlanders are more clearly distinguished by their song traditions, which have developed, for the most part, along quite distinctive and separate lines.
There is some intimate knowledge of the immigrant Highlanders through their prose and songs that has been published in newspapers and written in diaries and letters in archives and libraries both in Australia and in Scotland. However, there has been very little scholarship that has used these primary Australian Gaelic-language sources. The most obvious reason for this omission is, of course, the language barrier. Other factors have also had an impact: some of the material is housed in small historical society museums and there is not always free access to the materials. There is also of course the difficulty of extracting the Gaelic songs from a mountain of other archival material on migrant Scots. To date there has been no study at all of the role of song in the early Australian-Gaelic community. This is something I hope to address as I continue in this research.
There is an ongoing academic debate and general perception about the Scots Gaelic identity in Australia that I would like to examine with respect to a number of Gaelic songs written in the mid 1800s and early 1900s in Australia for these songs tell us something significant and perhaps contradict, at least in part, some of the ideas put forward about Gaelic identity. What is of great interest to me are the Scots Gaelic songs that were being written in Australia at this moment in time for these songs add greatly to the story. They give us the perspective of the individual often lost in the broader gaze of history. The stories are told to us in the first person enabling us many years later, as Malinowski puts it, “… to grasp [their] point of view, [their] relationship to life and [their] vision of [their] world” (Malinowski, B. 1961).
A common stance that many historians have advanced is that the Gaels assimilated quickly and effortlessly into the broad Australian landscape. For example Broome claims that the Scots “quickly became invisible [and] placed success above ethnic consciousness” (Broome, R. 1984, p.105) and Richards writes "most Scots merged anonymously into the life of colonial Australia" (Richards, 1985, p.112). As a musicologist with an interest in Scots Gaelic song the above comments have intrigued me and recently I have embarked upon a research project that will collect and examine specifically the songs of the Gaelic immigrants to Australia. The approach to, and methodology of, this project is based on the recognition that music plays a central role in the construction and consolidation of communities and cultural identity. It has been argued that music is socially meaningful because it provides a site whereby individuals and communities are able to recognise and articulate identities, places, and the boundaries that separate them from others (Stokes, 1997, p.5). In this way, the songs and other related documents of this minority migrant group will express their voices and their experiences in Australia as a displaced community.
The story of Gaelic assimilation is far from being clear-cut, the issues are complex and for many Gaels the process has been one of intense pain and alienation, on spiritual, cultural, and physical levels. Historian Cliff Cumming is one of the few scholars in Australia who has written extensively on aspects of the maintenance of a sense of Scottish identity using Gaelic sources. His article 'Scottish National Identity in an Australian Colony' (Cumming, 1993, pp.22-38) argues that “the Scots in these foundation years deliberately sought to maintain their identity, asserting their national distinctiveness...” (Cumming, 1993, p. 22).
An examination of sources reveals good evidence to support Cumming's view that since the first settlement there has been a dogged attempt to maintain a sense of continuity of Gaelic culture under the most trying of circumstances. The significance of the church in providing a centre for the Gaelic community and a fostering of the language has been considerable. There were regular Gaelic church services held in many Presbyterian communities. In the late 1800s St Andrews Presbyterian Church in Carlton, Victoria, had a congregation of over 900 voting members — all of them Highlanders (Sanderson, W, 1905, p.18)). The last Gaelic church service held in Geelong was in 1953, and in Sydney in 2001. There were at least two Gaelic schools on record associated with the Free Church (later to become the Free Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia) and the effort to run and maintain these schools must have been considerable; there was also a Gaelic newspaper printed in Hobart in 1857 (An Teachdaire Gaidhealach). Two extracts from this newsletter gives a glimpse of life in Australia for these new Gaelic settlers and the importance their cultural heritage in regard to music and language. In the harshest of environments – the Victorian goldfields in the mid 1800s – there was a place where Gaels could, and did, feel proud of their musical heritage. For example this vivid description from a Highlander's letter published in the newspaper and dated 30 June, 1857:
In the evening the bag-pipes can be heard sounding, Maili Chruinn Donn, or so; - and the effect among the trees, would, if possible, charm the kangaroos. Men of all nations, tongues, and colour, may be seen on fine evenings, leaving their tents, laying aside their musical instruments to hear the distant but powerful notes of the Highland whistle. Not less admired is the piper with his Highland dress and independent air as he marches through the camp as if to battle. In the interval Beinndorain or such-like is started by some clear-lunged Gael, while the most lucky of the past day are cleaning and weighing their gold.’ (An Teachdaire Gaidhealach, August, 1857).
Or this from Kenneth Grant in Moreton Bay dated January 16, 1857:
Although it’s been 15 years since I left Granton-on-Spey my Gaelic is as good as ever and I cannot deny that it is the sweet sound of the language of my country that I prefer to English, and the many Gaels that I have met since I came to this place have shown the same love for the language of the mountains.
I have four Gaelic books: the Bible, the Psalmody, sacred songs and Pilgrim's Progress and there isn't a day that passes that I don't read a chapter from each of these precious books (An Teachdaire Gaidhealach, March 1857).
It is significant that the Victorian Gaelic Society has now been running continuously for over 100 years and regular musical Gaelic events are still taking place in Hobart, Melbourne, Canberra, Brisbane, Perth and Sydney with choirs, women's waulking choruses, Gaelic workshops, solo singers, fiddlers, pipers, and folk bands all forming an integral part of the contemporary Australian musical scene. There is too, Comunn Gàidhlig Astràilia (the Scottish Gaelic Association of Australia) which produces the quarterly journal An Teachdaire Gaidhealach, and although based in Sydney it has members from all over Australia and overseas.
My approach to this project also takes into account the capacity of the music as well as the text to communicate meaning. This is not to suggest that a study of the words of the songs alone cannot be insightful, but because songs are, after all, a sonic medium, the tunes play a significant role in the creation of meaning. Tunes give additional information about phrasing, textual scanning, word emphasis and so on, but they also offer a locus of 'intertextuality' in much the same way that texts can refer to other texts. Song tunes can provide important information about locality — for example they can provide information on interaction between groups of Highlanders since specific tunes come from specific locations. But perhaps more significantly, tunes accrue cultural meaning as a result of the history of their use. This accrued meaning then is transferred to the new song tunes and becomes part of the ongoing cultural meaning. The tunes are especially important for another reason as they, in a very real sense, bridged the gap between the old world and the new. It is the tunes themselves that were in effect the actual link providing a very real and tangible sense of continuity with the past in the scattered Gaelic communities.
As was/is common practice in the Gaelic song tradition the words of a new song were often set to an old and familiar tune and often an inscription at the beginning of the words giving the old tune with the words air fonn. Traditionally in Gaelic Scotland there was no delineation between music and poetic text; the two were intertwined, the tune being a vehicle for the poetry (Shaw, M, 1999, p. 76). It is very interesting that publications of Gaelic poetry written in Australia still bear signs of this tradition. For example in these published poems of the period at the very beginning of the poem there is often the line ‘air fonn…’ which roughly translates as ‘to the tune of’ whereby a traditional tune is then given and identified by vocables. It should be noted here that many Gaelic songs (particularly the waulking songs) use specific vocables in their choruses. While many of the vocables use similar sounds they are nonetheless recognisable as belonging to specific melodies.
If we accept the argument that music is socially meaningful because it provides a site in which individuals and communities are able to recognise and articulate identities, places, and boundaries through song then these songs tell us one profound message which is repeated many times over; the sense of utter disconnection with Australia along with an overwhelming connection to the home country; a sense of the absolutely alien character of Australia both in terms of landscape and people and the ensuing emotional desolation, dislocation and despair that this engendered. There is little in the way of acceptance of the new home country, but there is a strong sense of the boundaries which separated these early migrants both geographically and culturally. The perception of the Gaels as disappearing without a murmur into the Australian landscape, or almost casually tossing aside all thoughts of 'home' and ethnicity for financial advancement is something that is not born out by the songs that I have examined so far. These songs suggest several points of significance:
1. For some of the immigrants separation from the home country was unbearable and remembrances of home almost too painful to bear as can be seen in the verse of Berneray bàrd Iain Archie MacAskill in Moladh Tir Na Gaidhlig (In Praise of the Land of Gaelic) (Fergusson, 1977).
Example 1.
'Ged 's iomadh bliadhna bho 'n thriall mi fein as [Leodhais]
Mo chuimhne air tionndadh as ur 'gam cheusadh...
Though many years now since I have left it [Lewis]
My memory is turning again to torture...
Or MacAskill's An Stoirm (The Storm) (Fergusson, 1977):
Example 2.
...Gu bheil ni 'nam shineadh 's mo dhruim air a' chruas,
Le sac air an inntinn nach diobair le luath's;
Mo lamh air an ridhleir a'sgriogbhadh an duain,
Toir urram dha 'n chearn ghlas a ch'araich mi suas.
...And now I am lying, my back against the rocks,
A load on my spirit too heavy to lift;
My hand on the pen that is writing this song,
In praise of the green isle where I was brought up.
2. The harshness of life in Australia meant that many immigrants struggled with simply trying to survive. Fada, Fada, Thall Thar Sàile (Far Away Across the Ocean) by Roderick MacDonald originally from Lewis also illustrates something of the harshness and despair of life here (Fergusson, 1977):
Example 3.
Tha mi nis am fearann tartmhor,
Tha mi airsneulach 's bho bhron;
Tha mo chosnadh ann an ainbheach,
Tha mi 'm fasdadh mar an traill...
Gur ann domhsa briste cridhe
Moch 'us anmoch ris an spreidh;
Iad nan craoinichean gun ionghailt,
'S iad a 'tuiteam marbh air raon...
Chan eil ceartas air an saoghal,
Chaidh am baoghal air mo dhruim;
Saothair chruaidh gun bhuannachd dhomsa,
'S mor gu 'm b'fhearr bhi 'n Eilean Leodhais.
I am now in land that's dried up
I am harrassed and I'm sad:
And I've sold my right to labour,
I am hired like a slave...
And to me it's such heart-break
Soon and late attending herds;
They are starving with no pasture,
They will drop dead on the plain...
There's no justice in the world here,
There's a burden on my back;
Hard the toil that brings no profit,
Better far in Isle of Lewis
3. The following song by the bard Aonghus Beatan illustrates the dispersion of the poet's community, the lack of a minister and also the alienness of the surroundings. He published two songs in An Teachdaire Gaidhealach that are in sharp contrast to each other: In the first, a long but detailed and graphic account he tells us that this song is an accurate account of everything that happened to his countrymen who were removed and about the boat journey itself, before he describes his feelings about living now in Australia. The poem is indeed long, but Beatan’s account is so extraordinarily vivid it is worth re-printing a substantial part of it (Beatan, in ATG, 1857):
Example 4.
Air Fonn:
Faill illirin o na hug 's horo-eile,
Faill illirin o na hug 's horo-eile,
Dhealaich sinn air a’ chladach 's fhad'
Ma faic sinn a chèile.
'S iomadh aon [non] a bha brònach nuair a sheòl sinn fon chala,
'S beag a bh’ aca [aon/non?] ri ionndrainn [iunndrainn] dhiùlt an grunnd
ri 'n cuid bàrra;
Bha na mail riu 'g eitheach, iad gun sprèidh air an fhearann
Maoir a tighin' ‘s bàirlin iad a dh’ fhàgail an taighean.
Bha sinn deasaich 's tuathaich eadar Cluaidh 's Lochcarruinn,
Agus dùthaich [dutchaich] Shir Seumas agus Sleibhte nam bradan,
'Sinn 'san ['s an] luing ud le chèile mar threud air an aiseag [niseag],
'S gann gun gabhair' ‘ar n-àireamh thug am bàs uainn an deachamh.
'Nuair a dh’ fhàg sinn rutha clearach cha robh tìr ann ri lèirsinn,
Ach an cuan as a thoiseach, molach robach ag èiridh,
Dh' èirich tinneas 's bochdainn a bha goirt da luchd-deuchainn,
Dol a dh’ iarraidh [iarruidh] an fhortain taobh toisgeal na greine.
Bha mnathain a's clann ann 's iad gun sannt air an aran
Iad ri tuireadh 's ri caoineadh – a' glaodhaich 's ri gearan
Iad a’ caoidhrean gun tàmh mu annradh na mara
'S cha robh leigheas 's a' chàs ud ach fuireach sàmhach 's an leabaidh….
Nuair a chunnaic [chunnaig] iad fearann, urad feannaig de'n aite,
Dh’ fhalbh am bròn 's thàinig misneachd 's dh’fhàs iad critheil mar b’ abhaist
Bha iad toillichte an uair sin gun d’ fhuair iad teachd sàbhailt.
Seach laidhe 's chuan dol am poc' s luaidhe 's a mhas aig…
Tha mi seo aig Loch-Elisa, ceud mìle bho shagairt,
Na bho mhinisteir dìleas a dhèanamh fìrinn a labhairt,
'S ged tha biadh agus aodach ri fhaotinn 's ri ghabhail,
Tha mi 'g ionndraichinn daonan nach eil daoine dhomh 'm fagus.
'S olc na coimhearsnaich th’ agam 'on a thàinig mi 'n àite,
Daoine dubha 's coin-fhiadhaich gur e'n gniomh bhi ri mèirle...
'S tric a dheasaich mi suipeir gun chupan gun spàinean,
'S ged a gheibheadh iad tuilleadh cha bhiodh fuigheail a-màireach.
Tha mi mach gach aon la’ ri frasan's ri gaothaibh [gaodhaibh],
'S gun agam do chuideachd ach an cuilein ra fhaotuinn…
Faill illirin o na hug’s horo-eile, (vocables)
Faill illirin o na hug 's horo-eile,
We parted on the shore and it will be a very long time
Before we again see each other.
Many a one was sad as we sailed from the pier
They had very little to miss, the land had rejected their crops
Those with them were wailing, without cattle on the land,
Bailiffs on their way with a summons of removal to quit their homes.
We were southwards and northwards between Clyde and Lochcarron
And Sir James’ land and Sleat of the salmon
We were in that ship together like a herd on a crossing
We could hardly be counted, death took a tenth of us.
When we left Clearach Head there was no land to be seen,
But the ocean ahead of us, stormy and rough rising up,
Disease and poverty emerged that was sore for those in hardship,
Searching for their fortune to the left side of the sun.
There were mothers and children with no appetite for their bread,
They were mourning and sobbing – wailing and complaining
They were in unrelenting strife with the tempest of the sea
No relief from that distress but to remain silent in bed…
When they saw land, even a strip of land of the place
Sorrow departed, replaced by hope and they became hearty as they used to be
They were happy then that they got there safely
Rather than being in the sea in a bag with lead at the bottom…
I am here in Loch Elisa, 100 miles from a priest,
And from a faithful minister who would speak the truth,
And though there is food and clothing available and for use
I am always missing the lack of people close to me.
Evil is the community I am in since I arrived,
Black men and wild dogs whose activity is thieving
Often did I prepare a supper without a cup or a spoon
And though they’d have more, there would be nothing left the next day
I am out every single day in rain showers and wind,
With no company available but the dog…
Then there was also the deeply felt loss of human connections as can be seen in the poetry of Iain Dubh MacDhomhnull 'ic Iain (John MacLennan). He emigrated to Australia in the early 1880s and generally signed his poems and songs with the Gaelic version of his name. Here is the first verse and chorus of Òran Fear-Turuis d’a Leannan (Song of the Wanderer to his Sweetheart) (MacLennan, 1937, p.34) .
Example 5.
Tha m’intinn tùrsach, fràiteach,
Bho’n là dh’fhàg mi Glasachu
‘S ged chaidh mi null thar sàile,
‘S ann an Gearrloch a stadais mi.
Sèist
Gur trom, trom a tha mi
An Astralia air m’aineolas
Gur truime ‘n diugh na’n dè mi,
‘S mi cumha as dèidh mo leannain-sa.
Melancholy tortures my mind
Since the day I left Glasgow,
And though I went across the seas
It was in Gairloch I should have stayed.
Chorus
I am weighed down by sadness,
A stranger in Australia.
Dejection lies on me day after day
As I sorrow for my sweetheart.
Yet the songs also demonstrate an enduring love and connection with the home country and its people. Contrast the above with the imagery with this from Angus Beaton Loch Laggain (to the tune The Meeting of the Waters) (Beatan, in ATG, 1857).
Example 6.
'S ro eibhinn an sealla
Loch Laggain, mo run,
Ann 'n glacaibh nan ard-bhean
La' seimh agus ciuin.
Le ceo air gach mullach
Coill uain air gach sliabh,
Far 'n gloine a'ruitheas
Pattach sollier mar ghrian.
'S mi 'g amharc mun cuairt
Dh'eirich fonn air mo chri
Bhi faicinn Airdmheirigie
Comhdaichte le sgiamh,
The sight of Loch Laggain the place I love
Is pleasing
Lying in the hollow of the high mountains
On a gentle and calm day.
With mist on every ridge
Wood green on every hill
With the purest flowing
Pattach as clear as the sun.
As I look around
My heart became full of joy
To see Airdmheirigie
Cloaked with beauty.
Or Moladh Tir Na Gaidhlig (In Praise of the Land of Gaelic) by MacAskill (Fergusson, 1977):
Example 6.
'S e tir na Gaidhlig 'us aill' fo'n cheitein:
'Nuair dhearrsas grian ann air sgiath nan sleibhtean.
An talamh sgiamhach gur fior mo speis da
Os cionn gach aite tha fo ghath na greine;
Ged 's fad air falbh e thar fhairge beucach
Tha bheanntain canach-gheal mar dhealbh gach ceum leam...
Na gleanntan fiarach gur fiar dhut spreidh annt'
Is uain a'ruagail air bruaich 's a'meilich;
Bidh earba shiubhlach air liug 's na reidhleached
Is turt nam fuaran a muaiseag geimhearr'.
'
The land of Gaelic in pretty spring-time;
When sunshine's beaming upon the hillsides.
The land of beauty I truly love it
Above all others the sun's rays shine on:
Though far away beyond roaring ocean
Its snow-capped mountains are with me always.
The glens so grassy filled with cattle
And lambs are climbing the banks and bleating,
The hinds are running across the plain-lands,
And falls are roaring with noisy music.
These songs and others like them demonstrate the anguish and despair that came with thoughts of home: the harshness of the life here; the sense of disconnection with the land itself; the lack of social and religious community due to distance; the loss of close family and romantic attachments; and all this coupled with a fervent attachment to a home country they would never see again. These people, in fact, lost almost everything that was culturally and spiritually meaningful. Many of their stories are stories of tragedy and loss. These are not the songs of a people who have easily surrendered notions of ethnic and cultural identity, or a people who have easily chosen wealth over kinship and country. These are the songs of a traumatised people.
The Highlanders shared their grief through the medium of song. By sharing these events and circumstances Gaels kept a sense of connection and identity with other Gaels over long distances by publishing in, for example, An Teachdaire Gaidhealach and other regional papers thereby shifting what was an oral tradition to one that became partly documented because of the nature of the Australian landscape. The use of songs to promote or maintain community in this manner is consistent with the cultural practice of the Gaels. Meek, in his introduction to the Gaelic anthology of social and political protest makes this comment about Gaelic poetry:
'The poets' aims can be focused in one word – community. In resorting to song, the primary motivation of the majority of poets was the preservation of the traditional Gaelic community in its local or wider Highland forms. Their perceptions of that community derived from the normal practices maintained across the centuries, were based on such considerations as kinship, cooperation and collective defence (Meek, 1995, p. 34).
Cumming argues that the oral tradition broke down at this point and perhaps in a sense it largely did, although it should also be remembered this is not clear cut either: a number of Gaelic songs were still being collected through the oral tradition until recent years (see Beyond the Hebrides by editor Prof. Donald Fergusson) and the way in which the poetry was often still being connected to its original tune by the words ‘air fonn’ should also be kept in mind. It perhaps should be kept in mind that the type of songs that are illustrated in this paper are only one particular type of Scots Gaelic song and this material is biased heavily toward lament, homesickness and nostalgia. I believe that this material could be placed into the category, or genre, of Ceòl Mòr (Great Music) – the category that contains panegyrics and laments. The Ceòl Beag (Small Music), those parts of the tradition associated with lively working songs, waulking songs, songs for dancing and mouth music, is more difficult to trace because of its ephemeral nature.
Some might argue that these songs are no different really from the songs of any other migrant group – but that does not make them any less poignant, nor their experiences any the less valid. And, surely in the context of our Australian history these stories are significant particularly in light of current discussions regarding assimilation and national identity. These are songs from a people in exile and the wonder is that despite overwhelming odds many Highlanders did managed to maintain their cultural ties. These songs add to our understanding of events that took place almost two hundred years ago and helped to shape Australia. They are another side to the story and give us a view of our history from a different perspective – a perspective filtered through the emotional response of the Scots Gaelic migrants. It can be argued that these accounts are heavily subjective, being mediated through these intense personal experiences – yet they are important because of this. These songs give the story its humanness. And even though these Scots Gaelic threads are now slender, they do still leave an indelible stamp upon the Australian landscape and psyche.
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